Scientific argumentation

Argumentation is part of academic speaking and writing. University staff engage in academic debate, for example, in articles, seminars and conferences in their disciplines. University students practice argumentation in written and spoken assignments.

Opiskelijat keskustelevat seminaarissa pienryhmässä

Your writing instructor says that your writing assignment needs to develop an original thought. What does that mean?

What is an academic argument?

Academic argument means that you put forward your own stance or take on the given topic, and support it with evidence and reasoning. Often the support is a summary or paraphrase of something that you have read in a reliable source.

Argumentation is a goal-oriented, social and reciprocal activity: it involves both arguing one's own arguments, identifying, analysing, and evaluating the arguments and justifications of others, and linking one's own arguments and justifications to them. At its best, argumentation is a collaborative discussion.
The key to scientific argumentation is to justify the choices, interpretations and conclusions drawn, for example, the choice of research topic, theoretical premises, research method and data, and the analysis, interpretations and results.

"An academic argument is not a fight, a battle, or a negative confrontation." ()

Laura Ketonen keskustelee ryhmätöitä tekevien opettajaopiskelijoiden kanssa.

Structure of arguments

Academic arguments are everywhere. For example, the following sentence consists of two parts: a claim and the support.
“Upon perceiving that many students treat the sources in superficial manner in their academic writing, writing instructors claim that critical academic reading skills should be taught”, the statement “critical reading skills should be taught” makes a claim about the topic, and information about the perceived superficial treating of sources in academic papers is the evidence that supports the claim.

For models for constructing an argument, see for example the method, method, and method.

Although I may have strong views on the issue under discussion, I am also able to change my opinions in response to the arguments of others.

Hemmo, student of information systems science

Counter arguments

To make your argument stronger and show that you really understand the topic, you should also think about and respond to possible arguments against your point of view.

How to build a good argument?

In academic writing, your instructor is mostly likely expecting to hear about your position, perspective or point of view on the topic. Your argument could simply be your answer to the assignment question or the conclusions of your research. Arriving at that requires some prior steps:

Often writing or speaking assignments contain some assigned background readings. Building critical academic reading skills is crucial.
Your instructor probably expects you to briefly summarise or synthesize your readings as part of the writing task. Whether you are expected to compare the sources to each other, analyse their significance, etc, depends on the assignment. It is always important to read the task instruction carefully to know what is expected. The words in the task instruction may prompt a certain kind of answer.
Your instructor also expects you to make your own interpretation of the topic, and to support it with information, facts or data gathered from your readings. In other words, your instructor wants to see how you synthesise the information gathered from various sources and how you include your own voice in your writing. Read more about academic writing

Scientific discussion is critical, but it does not mean cynical or negative communication. Criticality means a questioning, investigative, reasoning and understanding approach.

Identifying arguments in academic texts

In argumentative writing or speech, the key elements of the argument should be made explicit, allowing the reader or listener to judge, for example, the validity of the arguments, the validity of the conclusions, or the credibility of the link between the arguments and the claim or conclusion. The following features of academic writing help you identify arguments in texts and to use them in building your arguments:
- Referencing: In-text citations are often used to support claims.
- Linking words: Words such as because, so, therefore show the connection between ideas to the reader. Look at the information given after linking words to identify the key themes and what is the evidence, and what is the aim.
- Hedging and boosting: Words such as probably, possibly, certainly show that writers are being critical about the claims they make and are also prepared for counterarguments.

Observing discipline-specific differences in argumentation

Which theories or theoretical models are currently considered to be the most relevant in your discipline? Are there theoretical "controversies" in your field?
Which methods of research and analysis are considered valid in your field of science?
What kind of evidence or empirical evidence is considered convincing? What facts or examples are considered credible?
What kind of reasoning is considered credible?

Preparing for an academic seminar

How does scientific discussion differ from everyday discussion?

Recognising and understanding the characteristics of scientific discussion helps you to participate in these discussions. Roughly speaking, the difference between everyday conversation and scientific discussion can be structured as follows:

Everyday conversation	Scientific discussion
Low or variable level of abstraction	High level of abstraction
Different views are not necessarily discussed	Discussing different views
Finding the right answers	Searching for questions and different answer options
Sticking to your own opinions	Justifying and evaluating your own views
Reliance on authority	Interaction between peer experts

What is the purpose of scientific discussion?

The purpose of scientific discussion is to broaden the views of its participants. It is a place of shared learning, where knowledge is created, developed, studied and evaluated.

It aims to enable participants to

bring forward their own views.
listen to perspectives that differ from their own.
are also able to change their own views during the discussion.
value each other's views and the joint discussion.
engage in argumentative interaction, i.e. presenting arguments and counter-arguments.
be committed to evaluating their own and each other's views.

How to prepare for a scientific or expert discussion or debate?

Before the discussion or debate: reflect on your own views, structure them and think about the arguments and issues involved.
Make sure that participants have a sufficiently shared understanding of the topic and the scope of the discussion or debate.
Listen appropriately.
Link your own contribution to other contributions and add your own contribution (do not repeat the same thing).
Limit the content of your contribution: not too much in one contribution.
Give credit to others for good points of view, strong arguments and constructive approaches, for example.
Remember: Scientific discussion or debate is not about who wins and who loses. It is not a battle between experts in relation to each other.

Further reading on the Academic study skills website

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